Springbrook Research Centre

Our research centre is now into the fifth year of an ongoing study of our local firefly.

The firefly at Springbrook Queensland is actually a small beetle that is commonly sighted in the in the late spring ( Nov-Dec ), usually in wind protected areas of rainforest with high rainfall.
The species of the Springbrook firefly has long been incorrectly assumed to be the same as the Brisbane and Lamington species viz:  Luciola Scintillans.
However the finding of a female firefly in the forest observation area of our research centre on 30-11-2004 showed it to be a different species altogether to the Brisbane and Lamington varieties.

Thanks to identification confirmation by Dr. David Britton, Entomology Collection Manager at the Australian Museum in Sydney, the species of our local firefly has been identified as Atyphella atra.

Ballantyne and Lambkin’s key –  Atyphella atra Lea (Lampyridae: Luciolinae).  The species appears to be limited to patches of suitable montane rainforest in SE Qld-far northern NSW,  including Lamington Plateau (incl. Wiangaree), D’Aguilar Ranges, and Conondale Ranges.

The duration of their adult lifespan appears short, how long the firefly species found on Springbrook live in the adult stage has not as yet been exactly determined. One mature specimen (emergent date unknown but presumed 1-2 days) retained in a flask containing moist forest litter lived for 3 days. Ongoing observations would suggest a lifespan of 4-5 days.
Flying specimens caught, observed and released measure average 8mm (all males) in overall body length with the head extended outside the visor shield.
The female specimens found have an overall body length of  6mm.

Observation area :
The isolated observation area in the picture below was selected for the study.
It contains approximately 2 Hectares of forest, a small clearing of approximately 1100sq.metres, a 4 metre high rock wall and a spring-fed swampy creek.
This observation area is at an elevation of 714 metres, surrounded by well established forest for a radius of at least 1 kilometre, and is relatively protected from low wind due to the height of the forest canopy.
The observation area chosen does not include numerous sightings of fireflies in other areas of surrounding forest, it has been chosen because of the known past history as a reliable breeding ground for fireflies.

Observations of the random and rather erratic flight pattern of a single firefly in still conditions suggest that it would cover the whole clearing of approxinmately 1100 sq.m.in area in one hour flying in an erratic pattern at a height of between 3 to 5 metres above the ground, occasionally decending to ground level to rest on low ground cover foliage, or to check out possible female sightings. Male fireflies are not strong fliers and can be easily caught by hand during flight .
Male fireflies are attracted to a small flash of light in the red/orange spectrum.
Strong windy conditions, rain and bright moonlight cause fireflies to abandon their quest for a mate as they appear to be unable to fly in strong wind, and their light producing capability and vision appears to be  affected by bright moonlight. When a full moon rises the aerial activity is noticably less in intensity.
Fireflies are noticable in the forest areas at Springbrook 0.5 to 1.0 hour after sunset, usually in large numbers in late November to early December.
The duration of the flashing flight display of mass emergences each night is brief, usually around 30-45 minutes. There are exceptions to the normal with occasional individual males persisting for longer periods, and it is usually these 'late flashers' that find a female.
The female on the ground emits light through it's translucent wing-shields making it easier for a male in flight to distinguish between the sexes.  Male fireflies have opaque wing shields, brown/black in colour.

Note: Scrambling over fallen logs in the rainforest after dark while tracking low flying male fireflies really adds a new dimension to night research. A pair of shin pads has been added to my kit.

Rather than adding notes, a summary of observations to date has been tabled below.

2005 note: The clearing, surrounding forest and observation area were the subject of a large weed erradication program in 2004/2005. Lantana had overgrown the original cleared area over the past 40 years. The bulk of the lantana was pulled in mid-winter 2004 with a tractor and cable, and the regrowth and inaccessible areas sprayed with non-residual herbicide.
The effect of this action is remarkably evident this year (2005) with larger than ever numbers of fireflies being visible.

The observation time of 19:30hrs was chosen as the earliest optimal time for November and early December.

Overall observations suggest that:

1. Energy
The chemical elements required to provide the energy expended by fireflies in light emission is accumulated during the larval stage.
2. Nutrition
The species of firefly being observed here does not feed in the adult stage. It appears to have no visible mouth parts therefore it would have only a limited supply of energy and consequently a short life span (4 days).
It uses only the existing fuel in it's body and expends it all in one brief lifespan session looking for a mate. The tables above are intended to portray an overall observation of fireflies numbers in an isolated area and the conditions that contribute toward optimal breeding periods.
3. Size
The body length with head extended outside the visor shield of captured and released male fireflies ranges from 6.0mm to 10.0mm, with the majority being around 8.0mm. It is possible that optimal seasonal factors cause mass pupations at the same time regardless of the stage of larval development. This could account for the variation in body size of specimens observed. It could also be that we have two closely related but different species in the same area. The same phenomenon has been observed recently in the Natural Bridge area. (see pics at the bottom of this page).
4.  Predators
Spider webs contribute significantly toward the reduction of the population as a high proportion of male fireflies meet their demise in webs while flying at low level at night.
5.  Vision capability
Observations of the sight capability of male fireflies in large numbers in a given area show that the greater the numbers flashing in an area, the less likely they are to see a female flashing response from the ground.
I have stood beside a female firefly recently in a period of intense male firefly signalling and observed none finding the female who was responding quite brightly.
When the aerial barrage had declined, one lone male detected the female and descended to the target.
This suggests that even though the male has extraordinarily large eyes, they may be 'night-blinded', 'distracted' or perhaps forced to be more competitive by 'outflashing' the other male fireflies in the quest for a mate.
6. Duration of aerial flashing display
The duration of the flashing flight display of mass emergences each night is brief, usually around 30-45 minutes. There are exceptions to the normal with occasional individual males persisting for longer periods, and it is usually these 'late flashers' that find the females.
7. Larval life span
This has yet to be determined as even after the firefly season has finished, there are still numbers of immature bioluminescent larvae in the ground, which suggests to me that either the larvae we are observing are not the larvae of the firefly being observed, or the life span of the larvae may be greater than 12 months. Note: 12-12-2006 The larvae we have been observing is apparently the larvae of a moth, so the search will go on next year.

8. Disproportional representation of the sexes
The ratio of males to females seems to be around 100:1. Females are extremely difficult to find.
The ratio of males outnumbering females at 100:1 has been verified in observations over a 5 year period.
This is the outstanding unanswered question resulting from the observations.
(a) why are there so few females?  ...........   more work needs to be done on this question.

Biochemistry of light emission:

Fireflies produce light via a biochemical reaction consisting of Luciferin (a substrate) combined with Luciferase (an enzyme), ATP (adenosine triphosphate {the energy molucule}).
When these components interact in the presence of oxygen, photon emission (light) is produced.
The method of light production by the firefly although involving the same chemical componentry is quite different to that of the glow worm and ranges through a different colour spectrum.
The colour of the light produced seems to the eye to range from red to orange while building up a charge, through to pale green to yellow on ignition.
The firefly is able to generate a distinct surge of flashing light probably by controlling the oxygen supply to the photic organ for use in the chemical reaction. Unlike glow worms that produce continual light emission, the firefly has the ability to "load" small quantities of chemicals to react with oxygen with a quick flash of light, with each small charge being quickly expended. They are able to repeat the process in rapid succession with the light emission being likened to the flick of a flint ignited cigarette lighter.
The production of light by the firefly is very efficient, with very little heat being given off as wasted energy.

Researchers from Harvard and Tufts universities discovered that fireflies use the same gas that regulates blood pressure and heart contractions in humans.
The gas - nitric oxide - once disdained as a mere air pollutant, controls delivery of oxygen to specialized light cells that use the oxygen to fuel chemical luminescence in the fireflies.
Fireflies rapidly flash on and off with the coming and going of the gas, generating signals that identify the species and sex of the flashers.

Photos of light emission

	f_fly1.jpg  Startrail of male firefly in flight 09-12-2003
	f_fly2.jpg  Closeup of stationary firefly light burst 09-12-2003

	Atyphella atra Male Firefly at Springbrook
Male firefly. Note the brown coloured visor shield. After taking to flight, it retracts it's head under the shield (as per the photo below) to concentrate it's vision downward.
	Atyphella atra Male Firefly at Springbrook
Note the translucent tail segments. This is the photic organ wherein the production of light occurs.
Wing shields open, and having enough of the photo shoot, the subject firefly departs the camera area and prepares to take flight. Apology for the quality of the photo as the subject had departed the observation area and was in motion.
Female Firefly
	Atyphella atra Female Firefly at Springbrook Found 30-11-2004 Location= At the forest edge of the clearing in the observation area on the ground in the shelter of the root buttress of a large tree. The female specimens found are translucent, and when they flash (unlike the male with dark wing shields) the light is emitted through the wing shields. Although found on the ground the female having what appears to be wing shields, may be either capable of flight, or they have lost this ability. To date no female fireflies have been captured in flight, all have been found on the ground.
	Atyphella atra Female Firefly Underside pic at Springbrook Found 30-11-2004
Here we have a problem: It was originally assumed that Springbrook Fireflies were of the known Brisbane species viz: Luciola Scintillans. From the female specimens found at Springbrook Research Centre study area, it appears we have a different species, viz: Atyphella atra.
Fireflies mating:	02-12-2004 Atyphella atra After joining, the female quite surprisingly towed the male firefly around for 20 minutes. Upon separation the male firefly appeared dead from exhaustion but revived some 30 minutes later, and the pair showed no further interest in each other. Both have been released into a controlled environment for further observation.
17-11-2007 Atyphella atra and Atyphella similis Male fireflies caught in the same display area at the Springbrook Research Centre natural breeding colony. Observations suggest that Atyphella similis specimens are flying downhill to the Atyphella atra colony from an area approximately 1 km distant and are possibly attracted by the nightly Atyphella atra  display in this concentrated area. To support this hypothesis, no female similis have been found during the 5 year observations in the Atyphella atra  area. click the image for larger view Atyphella atra and Atyphella similis - Males undersides. click the image for larger view 05-12-2006. Atyphella atra - Male and female fireflies captured in the Springbrook Research Centre observation area Note the active single segment photic organ of the female as compared to the male that has two large  segments. click the image for larger view 18-11-2005 Atyphella atra - Male and female fireflies captured in the Springbrook Research Centre observation area click the image for larger view 02-11-2005 Atyphella Similis Male fireflies (topside) observed near Natural Bridge. Note the variation in body size that could suggest that a seasonal trigger (possibly heavy rainfall after a dry winter) causes firefly larvae to pupate at the same time regardless of larval development stage. Thank you to the owners of Quamby Falls Lodge for their participation in the Springbrook area firefly study. click the image for larger view 02-11-2005 Atyphella Similis Male fireflies (underside) observed near Natural Bridge. click the image for larger view Atyphella Similis Lamington male and female Fireflies pic sent in by an interested reader, origin of pic unknown. Atyphella Scintillans Brisbane fireflies, 3 male and one female firefly (upper RHS of picture) Photo courtesy of the Queensland Museum

G.Maguire
Springbrook Research Centre.

External References:

Australian Biological Resources Study (ELATEROIDEA: Atyphella Atra)

Ballantyne, L.A. & Lambkin, C.2000   12 31: Lampyridae of Australia (Coleoptera: Lampyridae: Luciolinae: Luciolini)

Ballantyne, L.A. (1968). Revisional studies of Australian and Indomalayan Luciolini (Coleoptera: Lampyridae: Luciolinae). Univ. Qld Pap. Dept. Entomol. 11(6): 105-139

Lawrence (1982)
Firefly larvae have photic organs that produce light. It is generally accepted that firefly larvae use their luminescence as a warning signal to possibly communicate to potential predators that they are unpalateable due to defensive chemicals in their bodies. To support this hypothesis, firefly larvae tend to increase the intensity of their glow when disturbed.
The larvae are elongate, flattened and somewhat narrowed anteriorly and posteriorly. The thoracic and abdominal tergites are sometimes laterally expanded to form projections as in Atyphella. The head is small and retractable and usually concealed by the pronotum. The mandibles are curved and perforate. Abdominal segment 8 bears a luminous organ, segment 9 is terminal and 10 has a holdfast organ consisting of several eversible, asperate, tubular filaments (Lawrence 1982).

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